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Biochemistry Homepage

Welcome to the Biochemistry course, part of the series for the Pre-Health Sciences Training Certificate. This course and the certificate are designed primarily for learners interested in preparing for and gaining entry to health-related programs and to help address the prerequisites for the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). This Biochemistry course provides learners with a comprehensive overview of the chemical processes and reactions that occur in living organisms. It explores the fundamental principles of biochemistry and their application to the study of biological systems, including the function of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as their role in metabolism and energy production.

The Biochemistry course is sponsored in part by the International Development Research Centre and the University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine. Like all NextGenU.org courses, it is competency-based, using competencies based on the Association of American Medical Colleges’ Medical College Admission Test. It uses learning resources from accredited, academic, professional, and world-class organizations and universities such as Rice University. This course was designed by Alixandria Ali BSc; Kabiru Gulma B. Pharm, MBA, MSc., Ph.D.; Marco Aurelio Hernandez, Ph.D., MSc; MSc; BSc.; Felix Emeka Anyiam, MPH, MScPH, DataSc.; Sherian Bachan MSc, BSc; Reisha Narine MSc, BSc; Aduke Williams BA; Sara Wildman, BSc; Carolina Bustillos MD, DiplEd; Rhonda Prudent BSc; Maryam Musa MBBS; Pablo Baldiviezo MD, MSc, DiplEd; Jenny Tang, BSc, Optometry Candidate (Hons); and Tristan Aaron Wild, BMSc (Hons).

For publications on NextGenU.org’s courses’ efficacy, see NextGenU.org’s publication page.

There are twelve (12) modules to complete, which provide an introduction to:

• Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry
• Module 2: Enzymes
• Module 3: Non-enzymatic Proteins
• Module 4: Carbohydrates
• Module 5: Carbohydrate Metabolism
• Module 6: Lipids
• Module 7: Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism
• Module 8: DNA
• Module 9: RNA
• Module 10: Biological Membranes
• Module 11: Aerobic Respiration
• Module 12: Bioenergetics

The completion time for this course is estimated at 76 hours, comprising 19 hours of learning resources, 39 hours of studying and assimilation of the content, and 18 hours of participating in learning activities and quizzes to assist the learners in synthesizing learning materials. This course is equivalent to 2 credit hours in the U.S. undergraduate/bachelor’s degree system.

The course requires the completion of all quizzes, discussion forums, and practical activities to receive a course certificate. Practice quizzes are available throughout the course and contain 10 Multiple-Choice Questions each. After you’ve completed each module, quiz, and learning activity, at the end of the course, you’ll have access to a final exam consisting of 40 Multiple-Choice Questions and a chance to evaluate this course. Participants have up to three opportunities to take the final exam and achieve the required passing score of >=70%. Once you’ve passed the final exam and completed the evaluations, you will be able to download a certificate of completion from NextGenU.org and our course’s co-sponsoring organizations. 

We keep all of your personal information confidential, never sell any of your information, and only use anonymized data for research purposes. Also, we are happy to report your testing information and share your work with anyone (your school, employer, etc.) at your request. 

Engaging with this Course:

This free course is aimed at students who have graduated from high school and want to prepare to become a health professional and/or pass the MCAT exam. You may also browse this course for free to learn for your personal enrichment. There are no requirements. 

To obtain a certificate, a learner must first register for the course and then successfully complete:

• The pre-test,
• All the reading requirements,
• All quizzes and pass with 70% with unlimited attempts,
• All practical activities,
• All discussion forums,
• The final lab activity,
• The final exam with a minimum of 70% and a maximum of 3 attempts, and
• The self and course evaluation forms.

To obtain credit:

• Complete all requirements listed above for the certificate, and
• Your learning institution or workplace should approve the partner-university-sponsored NextGenU.org course for educational credit, as they usually would for their learner taking a course anywhere.

NextGenU.org is happy to provide your institution with:

• A link to and description of the course training so they can see all of its components, including the co-sponsoring institutions,
• Your grade on the final exam,
• Your work products (e.g., discussion forum responses) and any other required or optional shared materials that you produce and authorize to share with them, 
• Your evaluations -- course and self-assessments,
• A copy of your certificate of completion with the co-sponsoring organizations listed.

To obtain a degree, NextGenU.org co-sponsors degree programs with institutional partners. To obtain a full degree co-sponsored with NextGenU.org, registrants must be enrolled in a degree program as a student of a NextGenU.org institutional partner. If you think your institution might be interested in offering a degree with NextGenU.org, contact us.

We hope you will find this a rewarding learning experience, and we count on your assessment and feedback to help us improve this training for future students.

Here are the next steps to take the course and earn a certificate:

• Complete the registration form,
• Take the pre-test, and 
• Begin the course with Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry. In each lesson, read the description, complete all required readings and any required activity, as well as take the corresponding quizzes.

Study Materials

We've utilized the Quizlet platform to create specialized flashcards designed to reinforce and test your knowledge throughout this course. Simply click the links to freely access them. Feel free to browse through our other sets of flashcards. Dive in and happy studying!

• Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry Flashcards.
  
• Module 2: Enzymes Flashcards.
  
• Module 3: Nonezymatic Proteins Flashcards.
  
• Module 4: Carbohydrates Flashcards.
  
• Module 5: Carbohydrate Metabolism Flashcards.
  
• Module 6: Lipids Flashcards.
  
• Module 7: Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism Flashcards.
• Module 8: DNA Flashcards.
• Module 9: RNA Flashcards.
• Module 10: Biological Membranes Flashcards.
• Module 11: Aerobic Respiration Flashcards. 
• Module 12: Bioenergetics Flashcards. 

Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry

Competency covered in this module:

• Peptides.
• Peptide bonds.
• Sanger’s strategy to determine peptide structure.
• Partial hydrolysis of peptides.
• End-group analysis.
• Insulin.
• Edman degradation.
• The strategy of peptide synthesis, the Merrifield method.
• Amino and carboxyl group protection.
• Formation of peptide bonds (fragment condensation approach.)
• Structures of peptides and proteins.
• Coenzymes.
• Hemoglobin.
• Pyrimidine and purine nucleosides.
• Nucleotides.
• Proteins.
• Functions.
• Shape and Composition.
• Protein Structure.
• The Folding Problem.
• Fibrous Proteins.
• Globular Proteins.
• Protein Denaturation.
• Causes of Denaturation.
• Process of Denaturation.

Module 1: Lesson 1: Amino Acids found in Proteins and Acid-Base Chemistry of Amino Acids

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Identify the basic structure of the amino acid and peptide bond.
• Analyze and predict the chemical properties of the amino acid side group.
• Determine the amino and carboxyl-terminal pKa.
• Predict the impact of the local chemical environment on the pKa of the amino acid side group.
• Determine the charge state of an amino acid at indicated pH; including the pH at which the amino acid is a zwitterion.

Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 2 hours.

Click here to start this lesson

• Amino Acid

Module 1: Lesson 2: Peptide Bond Formation and Hydrolysis

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the chemical nature of the peptide bond.
• Calculate the isoelectric point of a peptide.
• Explain the reactions of amino acids and their impact on protein.
• Analyze the importance of the reactions of cysteine-cysteine bonds.
• Analyze the biological activities of peptides.
• Compare the relative sizes of proteins.

Click here to start this lesson

• Peptides and Proteins

Module 1: Lesson 3: Protein Structure

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain how proteins are classified using their physical properties and how these impact protein functions.
• Explain the levels of protein structure, the bonds formed at each level, and the interaction/contribution of each level of organization to the overall protein structure.
• Describe the physicochemical properties of proteins.
• Identify the component and major parts of proteins.
• Describe the methods used to separate and purify proteins.

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• Proteins

Module 1: Lesson 4: Denaturation

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Understand what protein denaturation is.
• Explain the causes of protein denaturation.
• Describe the process of denaturation.

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• Denaturation of Proteins

• Quiz: Module 1

Module 2: Enzymes

Competency covered in this module:

• Enzymes.
• Properties of enzymes.
• Basics of enzyme catalysis.  
• Enzymes: Activation Energy and Reaction Equilibrium. 
• Classification of enzymes.  
• Oxidoreductases.
• Transferases.
• Hydrolases.
• Lyases.
• Isomerases.
• Ligases.
• The Catalytic Activity of Enzymes.
• Mechanisms of Enzymatic Catalysis.
• Coenzymes.
• Regulation of Enzyme Activity.
• KM and Vmax Values.
• The kcat/KM Criterion.
• Biochemical Reactions that include multiple substrates.
• Allosteric Enzymes.

Module 2: Lesson 1: Enzyme Classifications

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the classification of different types of enzymes and understand their physiological role.
• Describe the basic properties of enzymes and their use as catalysts.

Click here to start this lesson

• Classes of Enzymes

Module 2: Lesson 2: The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the function of enzymes as catalysts making use of energy diagrams for catalyzed and uncatalyzed reactions.
• Describe the principal mechanisms of enzymatic catalysis
• Identify the principal characteristics and functions of coenzymes and their importance.
• Describe how enzymes are regulated covalently and allosterically.

Click here to start this lesson

• The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts

Module 2: Lesson 3: Enzyme Kinetics

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe enzyme kinetics through equations and graphs.
• Explain how the Michaels-Menten model can be used to characterize enzyme kinetics.
• Describe why the kcat/KM criterion is important in enzyme kinetics.
• Describe how the multiple substrate reactions are classified.
• Determine if Allosteric enzymes obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics.

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• Allosteric Interactions
• CHEM 440 - Enzyme Kinetics

• Quiz: Module 2

Module 3: Nonezymatic Proteins

Competency covered in this module:

• Structural proteins (collagen, elastin, keratins, actin, tubulin.)
  
• Motor Proteins (ATPases, Myosin, Kinesins, dyneins.)
• Binding Proteins.
• Cell Adhesion Molecules (Cadherins, Integrins, Selectins.)
• Immunoglobulins.
• Ion Channels (ungated, voltage-gated, ligand-gated.)
• Enzyme-linked Receptors
• G-protein Coupled Receptors
• Electrophoresis (Native PAGE, SDS-PAGE, Isoelectric Focusing)
• Chromatography for protein isolation
• Examining protein structure via X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
• Edman degradation for analyzing small proteins, Bradford Protein assay, bicinchoninic acid assay.

Module 3: Lesson 1: Cellular Function

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the nonenzymatic functions of structural proteins, motor proteins, binding proteins, cell adhesion molecules, and immunoglobulins.

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• Nonenzymatic Protein Function for the MCAT: Everything you Need to Know

Module 3: Lesson 2: Biosignaling

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe biosignaling of ion channels, enzyme-linked receptors, and G-protein coupled receptors.

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• Biochemistry 1: Biosignaling

Module 3: Lesson 3: Protein Analysis Techniques

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the various protein analysis techniques.

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• Protein Analysis Techniques Explained

• Quiz: Module 3

Module 4: Carbohydrates

Competency covered in this module:

• Monosaccharides especially D-Fructose, D-Glucose, D-Galactose, and D-Mannose.
• Stereochemistry (enantiomers, diastereomers, epimers of monosaccharides.)
• Hexose conformations (Haworth and Fischer projections of D-Glucose.)
• Mutarotation.
• Oxidation and reduction of monosaccharides (Tollens' reagent, Benedict's reagent.)
• Esterification and phosphorylation of monosaccharides.
• Glycoside formation, glycosidic linkage formation.
• Homoglycans.
• Heteroglycans.
• Glycoconjugates.
• Proteoglycans.
• Glycoproteins.
• Mnemonic for carbohydrate configuration.
• Mutarotation.
• Ketoses.
• Deoxy sugars.
• Amino sugar, branched chain carbohydrates.
• Glycosides.
• Carbohydrate structure determination.
• Oxidation and reduction of carbohydrates  (Benedict’s reagent), periodic acid oxidation of carbohydrates.
• Isomerization and retro-aldol retro cleavage reactions of carbohydrates.

Module 4: Lesson 1: Classification of Carbohydrates

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Correctly classify carbohydrates according to their properties.

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• Carbohydrate Chemistry and Classification

Module 4: Lesson 2: Cyclic Carbohydrates

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe carbohydrates that have five or more carbon atoms.

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• Cyclic Form of Carbohydrates

Module 4: Lesson 3: Monosaccharides

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the different reactions of monosaccharides.

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• Chapter 22: Carbohydrates

Module 4: Lesson 4: Disaccharides

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Identify the two monosaccharide units in a given disaccharide.
  
• Determine the type of glycoside links present in a disaccharide structure.
• Draw the structure of a disaccharide, given the structure of the monosaccharide units and the type of glycoside link involved.
• Identify the structural features that determine whether or not a given disaccharide behaves as reducing sugar and undergoes mutarotation.
• Determine the products formed from the hydrolysis of a disaccharide.

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• Disaccharides

• Quiz: Module 4

• Reflection Activity: Health Applications of Biochemistry (90 minutes)

Module 5: Carbohydrate Metabolism

Competency covered in this module:

• GLUT 2 and GLUT 4.
  
• Impact of blood glucose levels on GLUT 2 and GLUT 4 activity.
  
• Key steps (intermediates, reactants, products, enzymes of glycolysis; hexokinase vs glycokinase.)
  
• Fermentation via lactate dehydrogenase.
  
• Glycolysis in erythrocytes.
  
• Steps in Fructose and Galactose metabolism (intermediates, reactants, products, enzymes.)
  
• Acetyl-CoA.
  
• Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex.
• The process and important steps.
  
• Important enzymes
  
• Oxidative phase.
  
• Non-oxidative phase.

Module 5: Lesson 1: Glucose Transport

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the mechanism of glucose transport in the body.

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• Glucose Transporters: Physiological and Pathological Roles

Module 5: Lesson 2: Glycolysis

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the key steps in glycolysis, fermentation via lactate dehydrogenase, and glycolysis in erythrocytes.

Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson

• Biochemistry, Glycolysis

Module 5: Lesson 3: Metabolism of Fructose and Galactose

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the key steps in Fructose and Galactose metabolism.

Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 48 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson

• Fructose and Galactose Breakdown Pathways

Module 5: Lesson 4: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex.

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• Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH)

Module 5: Lesson 5: Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis.

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• Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Module 5: Lesson 6: Gluconeogenesis

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the process and important enzymes in glucogenesis.

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• Biochemistry, Gluconeogenesis

Module 5: Lesson 7: Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the oxidative and non-oxidative steps in Pentose Phosphate Pathway.

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• Pentose Phosphate Pathway

• Quiz: Module 5

• Case Scenario: Pathophysiology of Carbohydrate Metabolic Disorders (150 minutes)

Module 6: Lipids

Competency covered in this module:

• Lipid types and structures.
  
• Terpenes and terpenoids.
  
• Steroids.
  
• Prostaglandins.
  
• Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)
  
• Storage of lipids.
  
• Saponification.
  

Module 6: Lesson 1: Lipid Classes

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the unique characteristics and diverse structures of lipids.
• Compare and contrast triacylglycerides (triglycerides) and phospholipids.
• Describe how phospholipids are used to construct biological membranes.

Click here to start this lesson

• Lipid types and structures

Module 6: Lesson 2: Signaling Lipids

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the different structures of terpenes and terpenoids, steroids, prostaglandins, and Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K).

Click here to start this lesson

• Lipids

Module 6: Lesson 3: Lipid Storage

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the storage of lipids in the body and the role of adipocytes.
  

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• Adipose Tissue

Module 6: Lesson 4: Saponification

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe saponification, its reactions, mechanisms, effects, and uses.

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• Saponification

• Quiz: Module 6

Module 7: Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism

Competency covered in this module:

• Digestion of lipids in the duodenum and small intestine.
  
• Micelle formation.
  
• Absorption.
  
• Mobilization and metabolism of triacylglycerols by the liver (hormone-sensitive lipase, lipoprotein lipase)
  
• Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins, Chylomicrons, Very-low-density lipoprotein, Intermediate-density lipoprotein, Low-density lipoprotein, High-density lipoprotein, Apolipoproteins.
  
• Citrate shuttle.
  
• LCAT enzymes.
  
• CETP transfer process.
  
• Fatty acid biosynthesis (Acetyl-CoA Shuttling, Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase, Fatty Acid Synthase.)
  
• Triglyceride/triacylglycerol synthesis, oxidation (activation and fatty acid entry into mitochondria, beta-oxidation in mitochondria, Propionic Acid Pathway.)
  
• Ketogenesis.
  
• Ketolysis.
  
• Proteolysis.
  
• Transamination/deamination.
  
• Glucogenic amino acids. 
  
• Ketogenic amino acids.
  
• Urea cycle.

Module 7: Lesson 1: Lipid Digestion and Absorption

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe lipid digestion, micelle formation, and absorption.

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• Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Module 7: Lesson 2: Lipid Mobilization

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the mobilization and metabolism of triacylglycerols by the liver.

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• Mobilization of Fatty Acids

Module 7: Lesson 3: Lipid Transport

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Understand the mechanism of lipid transport in the body.

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• Lipid Transport

Module 7: Lesson 4: Cholesterol Metabolism

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe citrate shuttle, LCAT enzymes, and CETP transfer process in Cholesterol metabolism.

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• Cholesterol Metabolism

Module 7: Lesson 5: Fatty Acids and Triglycerols Metabolism

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the metabolism of fatty acids and triglycerols.

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• Metabolism (Degradation) of Triglycerols and Fatty Acids

Module 7: Lesson 6: Ketone Bodies

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies.

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• Metabolism (Degradation) of Triglycerols and Fatty Acids

Module 7: Lesson 7: Protein Catabolism

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the concept of breakdown of proteins.

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• Biochemistry: Protein Catabolism

• Quiz: Module 7

• Case Scenario: Pathophysiology of Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolic Disorders (120 minutes)

Module 8: DNA

Competency covered in this module:

• Nucleosides and nucleotides and names of nucleosides and nucleotides (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine.)
  
• The sugar-phosphate backbone, DNA strand polarity, purines and pyrimidines, Watson-Crick model, denaturation, and reannealing.
• Histones.
• Heterochromatin and Euchromatin.
• Telomeres.
• Centromeres.
• Strand separation and origins of replication (replisome, replication origin, replication forks.) 
• DNA replication in prokaryotes vs eukaryotes, semi-conservative replication, replication of daughter strands (leading strand, lagging strand, Okazaki fragments, primase, DNA polymerases, DNA ligase.)
• Replicating ends of chromosomes (telomeres).
• Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes (cancer, metastasis, oncogenes, proto-oncogenes, anti-oncogenes.)
• Proofreading and mismatch repair.
• Nucleotide excision repair.
• Base excision repair.
• DNA cloning and restriction enzymes (recombinant vector, restriction endonucleases, sticky ends.)
• DNA libraries and cDNA.
• Comparison of genomic and cDNA (expression) libraries.
• Hybridization (PCR, Gel electrophoresis, and Southern Blotting.)
• DNA sequencing.
• Applications of DNA technology (Gene therapy, Transgenic, and Knockout Mice.)
• Safety and ethics of genetic engineering.

Module 8: Lesson 1: DNA Structure

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe nucleic acids and the role they play in DNA and RNA.

Click here to start this lesson

• Nucleic Acids

Module 8: Lesson 2: Organization of Chromosomes in Eukaryotes

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the organization of chromosomes in eukaryotes.

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• Organization of Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Module 8: Lesson 3: DNA Replication

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication.

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• DNA Replication Steps and Process

Module 8: Lesson 4: DNA Repair

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the mechanisms of DNA repair.

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• Mechanisms of DNA Repair

Module 8: Lesson 5: Recombinant DNA Technology

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe DNA cloning and restriction enzymes, DNA libraries and cDNA, hybridization, DNA sequencing, applications and DNA technology, and ethical considerations of genetic engineering.

Click here to start this lesson

• Recombinant DNA

• Quiz: Module 8

• Peer Activity: Applications of DNA Technology (120 minutes)

Module 9: RNA

Competency covered in this module:

• Nucleic acids.
• Structure and replication of DNA.
• Erwin Chargaff rules.
• DNA-directed protein biosynthesis.
• Genetic codes.
• DNA sequencing.
• Mechanism of transcription (helicase, topoisomerase, template strand, promoter regions, RNA polymerase II, TATA box.)
• Transcription factors, coding strand.
• Post-transcriptional processing .
•  Splicing (introns and extrons), 5' Cap, 3'Poly-A tail.
• Mechanism of translation (Initiation, elongation, termination.)
• Posttranslational processing (chaperones, phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation.)
• Operon structure.
• Jacob-Monod Model.
• Inducible systems (negative control, catabolite activator protein, positive control.)
• Repressible systems (corepressors.)
• Transcription factors (binding domain, DNA response element, activation domain.)
• Gene amplification (enhancers, gene duplication.)
• Regulation of chromatin structure (histone acetylation, DNA methylation.)

Module 9: Lesson 1: Nucleic Acids

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe nucleic acids and the role they play in DNA and RNA.

Click here to start this lesson

• Nucleic Acids
• Structure and Replication of DNA

Module 9: Lesson 2: Transcription Factors and the Preinitiation Complex (PIC)

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the preinitiation complex in RNA transcription.
• Describe the role of the transcription factors in assembling the preinitiation complex.

Click here to start this lesson

• Transcription and RNA Processing

Module 9: Lesson 3: Translation

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage.

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• Translation

Module 9: Lesson 4: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Understand the main mechanisms used to regulate genes on a molecular level via proteins, gene products, and signaling pathways.
• Compare inducible operons and repressible operons.
• Describe why regulation of operons is important.

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• Transcriptional Control and Epigenesis

Module 9: Lesson 5: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Define differential gene expression.
• Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin.
• Explain how DNA methylation and histone acetylation affects chromatin structure and the regulation of transcription.
• Define epigenetic inheritance.
• Describe the role of the transcription initiation complex.
• Define control elements and explain how they influence transcription.
• Distinguish between general and specific transcription factors.
• Explain the role of promoters, enhancers, activators, and repressors in transcriptional control.
• Explain how eukaryotic genes can be coordinately expressed.
• Describe the process and significance of alternative RNA splicing.
• Describe the processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes.
• Describe factors that influence the lifespan of mRNA in the cytoplasm.
• Explain how gene expression may be controlled at the translational and posttranslational level.

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• Eukaryotic Gene Regulation

• Quiz: Module 9

• Peer Activity: Applications of RNA Technology (120 minutes)

Module 10: Biological Membranes

Competency covered in this module:

• Membrane structure and function.
• Membrane dynamics (phospholipids, lipid rafts, flippases.)
• Lipids (fatty acids and triacylglycerols.)
• Phospholipids.
• Sphingolipids.
• Cholesterol and Steroids.
• Waxes.
• Proteins (transmembrane, embedded, integral, peripheral.)
• Carbohydrates.
• Membrane receptors.
• Concentration gradients.
• Passive transport (simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.)
• Active transport.
• Endocytosis and exocytosis.
• Membrane potential (Sodium-Potassium Pump, Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation.)

Module 10: Lesson 1: Fluid Mosaic Model

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the structure and functions of membranes.

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• Fluid Mosaic Model

Module 10: Lesson 2: Membrane Components

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the components of a membrane and membrane fluidity

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• Components and Structure

Module 10: Lesson 3: Membrane Transport

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe membrane transport in relation to concentration gradient and active/passive transport.

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• Membrane Transport

Module 10: Lesson 4: Specialized Membranes

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain membrane potential.

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• Membrane Potential

• Quiz: Module 10

Module 11: Aerobic Respiration

Competency covered in this module:

• Methods of forming Acetyl-CoA (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, fatty acid oxidation, amino acid catabolism, ketones, alcohol consumption.)
• Purpose of the Citric Acid Cycle: key steps, intermediates, reactants, products, enzymes in the Citric Acid Cycle, and regulation of the cycle.
• Structure of Mitochondria.
• Electron flow and complexes (NADH-CoQ Oxidoreductase, Succinate-CoQ Oxidoreductase, CoQH2-Cytochrome C Oxidoreductase, Cytochrome C Oxidase.)
• The Proton-Motive Force.
• NADH shuttles (Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle and Malate-Aspartate Shuttle.)
• Chemiosmotic coupling.
• Respiratory control.

Module 11: Lesson 1: Acetyl CoA

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the different methods of Acetyl-CoA formation.

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• Acetyl CoA Production

Module 11: Lesson 2: Citric Acid Cycle

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the purpose and key steps in Citric Acid Cycle.

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• The Citric Acid Cycle

Module 11: Lesson 3: Electron Transport Chain

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the electron transport chain in aerobic respiration

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• Electron Transport Chain

Module 11: Lesson 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe oxidative phosphorylation.

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• Oxidative Phosphorylation

• Quiz: Module 11

Module 12: Bioenergetics

Competency covered in this module:

• Biological systems as closed systems.
• Free energy.
• Enthalpy.
• Entropy.
• Physiological conditions.
• ATP as an energy carrier.
• Hydrolysis and coupling.
• Phosphoryl group transfers.
• Electron carriers (NADH, NADPH, FADH2).
• Flavoproteins.
• Postprandial (absorptive) state (anabolism, catabolism.)
• Postabsorptive (fasting) state (counterregulatory hormones.)
• Prolonged fasting (starvation.)
• Insulin and glucagon.
• Glucocorticoids.
• Catecholamines.
• Hyroid hormones.
• Liver.
• Adipose tissue.
• Resting muscle.
• Active muscle.
• Cardiac muscle.
• Brain.
• Analysis of metabolism (respirometry, Basal Metabolic Rate.)
• Regulation of body mass.

Module 12: Lesson 1: Thermodynamics and Bioenergetics

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the concept of thermodynamics and bioenergetics.

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• Bioenergetics/Thermodynamics

Module 12: Lesson 2: Adenosine Triphosphate

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the role of ATP as an energy carrier, its hydrolysis, and coupling.

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• Adenosine Triphosphate

Module 12: Lesson 3: Biological Oxidation and Reduction

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain electronic careers and flavoproteins.

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• Biological Oxidation-Reduction (BC/GC)

Module 12: Lesson 4: Metabolic States

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Explain postprandial, postabsorptive, and prolonged fasting.

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• Metabolic States of the Body

Module 12: Lesson 5: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe the roles of hormones in metabolism.

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• Hormonal Regulation of Fuel Metabolism

Module 12: Lesson 6: Tissue-Specific Metabolism

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe metabolism in the liver, adipose tissue, resting muscle, active muscle, cardiac muscle, and brain.

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• Tissue-Specific Metabolism

Module 12: Lesson 7: Integrative Metabolism

Student Learning Outcomes:

• Describe cellular respiration, basal metabolic rate, and regulation of body mass.

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• Metabolism, and Energy Balance

• Quiz: Module 12

• Reflection: Energy Production by the Human Body (150 minutes)

Final Exam

• Final Exam

Course and Self Evaluation & Certificate

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• Course Evaluation
• Self Evaluation

Learning activities