Course: Biochemistry

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Welcome to the Biochemistry course, part of the series for the Pre-Health Sciences Training Certificate. This course and the certificate are designed primarily for learners interested in preparing for and gaining entry to health-related programs and to help address the prerequisites for the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). This Biochemistry course provides learners with a comprehensive overview of the chemical processes and reactions that occur in living organisms. It explores the fundamental principles of biochemistry and their application to the study of biological systems, including the function of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as their role in metabolism and energy production.

The Biochemistry course is sponsored in part by the International Development Research Centre and the University of the Incarnate Word School of Osteopathic Medicine. Like all NextGenU.org courses, it is competency-based, using competencies based on the Association of American Medical Colleges’ Medical College Admission Test. It uses learning resources from accredited, academic, professional, and world-class organizations and universities such as Rice University. This course was designed by Alixandria Ali BSc; Kabiru Gulma B. Pharm, MBA, MSc., Ph.D.; Marco Aurelio Hernandez, Ph.D., MSc; MSc; BSc.; Felix Emeka Anyiam, MPH, MScPH, DataSc.; Sherian Bachan MSc, BSc; Reisha Narine MSc, BSc; Aduke Williams BA; Sara Wildman, BSc; Carolina Bustillos MD, DiplEd; Rhonda Prudent BSc; Maryam Musa MBBS; Pablo Baldiviezo MD, MSc, DiplEd; Jenny Tang, BSc, Optometry Candidate (Hons); and Tristan Aaron Wild, BMSc (Hons).

For publications on NextGenU.org’s courses’ efficacy, see NextGenU.org’s publication page.

There are twelve (12) modules to complete, which provide an introduction to:
- Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry
- Module 2: Enzymes
- Module 3: Non-enzymatic Proteins
- Module 4: Carbohydrates
- Module 5: Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Module 6: Lipids
- Module 7: Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism
- Module 8: DNA
- Module 9: RNA
- Module 10: Biological Membranes
- Module 11: Aerobic Respiration
- Module 12: Bioenergetics
The completion time for this course is estimated at 76 hours, comprising 19 hours of learning resources, 39 hours of studying and assimilation of the content, and 18 hours of participating in learning activities and quizzes to assist the learners in synthesizing learning materials. This course is equivalent to 2 credit hours in the U.S. undergraduate/bachelor’s degree system.

The course requires the completion of all quizzes, discussion forums, and practical activities to receive a course certificate. Practice quizzes are available throughout the course and contain 10 Multiple-Choice Questions each. After you’ve completed each module, quiz, and learning activity, at the end of the course, you’ll have access to a final exam consisting of 40 Multiple-Choice Questions and a chance to evaluate this course. Participants have up to three opportunities to take the final exam and achieve the required passing score of >=70%. Once you’ve passed the final exam and completed the evaluations, you will be able to download a certificate of completion from NextGenU.org and our course’s co-sponsoring organizations.

We keep all of your personal information confidential, never sell any of your information, and only use anonymized data for research purposes. Also, we are happy to report your testing information and share your work with anyone (your school, employer, etc.) at your request.

Engaging with this Course:

This free course is aimed at students who have graduated from high school and want to prepare to become a health professional and/or pass the MCAT exam. You may also browse this course for free to learn for your personal enrichment. There are no requirements.

To obtain a certificate, a learner must first register for the course and then successfully complete:
- The pre-test,
- All the reading requirements,
- All quizzes and pass with 70% with unlimited attempts,
- All practical activities,
- All discussion forums,
- The final lab activity,
- The final exam with a minimum of 70% and a maximum of 3 attempts, and
- The self and course evaluation forms.
To obtain credit:
- Complete all requirements listed above for the certificate, and
- Your learning institution or workplace should approve the partner-university-sponsored NextGenU.org course for educational credit, as they usually would for their learner taking a course anywhere.
NextGenU.org is happy to provide your institution with:
- A link to and description of the course training so they can see all of its components, including the co-sponsoring institutions,
- Your grade on the final exam,
- Your work products (e.g., discussion forum responses) and any other required or optional shared materials that you produce and authorize to share with them,
- Your evaluations -- course and self-assessments,
- A copy of your certificate of completion with the co-sponsoring organizations listed.
To obtain a degree, NextGenU.org co-sponsors degree programs with institutional partners. To obtain a full degree co-sponsored with NextGenU.org, registrants must be enrolled in a degree program as a student of a NextGenU.org institutional partner. If you think your institution might be interested in offering a degree with NextGenU.org, contact us.

We hope you will find this a rewarding learning experience, and we count on your assessment and feedback to help us improve this training for future students.

Here are the next steps to take the course and earn a certificate:
- Complete the registration form,
- Take the pre-test, and
- Begin the course with Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry. In each lesson, read the description, complete all required readings and any required activity, as well as take the corresponding quizzes.
Study Materials
We've utilized the Quizlet platform to create specialized flashcards designed to reinforce and test your knowledge throughout this course. Simply click the links to freely access them. Feel free to browse through our other sets of flashcards. Dive in and happy studying!
Module 1: Building Blocks of Biochemistry
Competency covered in this module:
- Peptides.
- Peptide bonds.
- Sanger’s strategy to determine peptide structure.
- Partial hydrolysis of peptides.
- End-group analysis.
- Insulin.
- Edman degradation.
- The strategy of peptide synthesis, the Merrifield method.
- Amino and carboxyl group protection.
- Formation of peptide bonds (fragment condensation approach.)
- Structures of peptides and proteins.
- Coenzymes.
- Hemoglobin.
- Pyrimidine and purine nucleosides.
- Nucleotides.
- Proteins.
- Functions.
- Shape and Composition.
- Protein Structure.
- The Folding Problem.
- Fibrous Proteins.
- Globular Proteins.
- Protein Denaturation.
- Causes of Denaturation.
- Process of Denaturation.
Module 1: Lesson 1: Amino Acids found in Proteins and Acid-Base Chemistry of Amino Acids
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Identify the basic structure of the amino acid and peptide bond.
- Analyze and predict the chemical properties of the amino acid side group.
- Determine the amino and carboxyl-terminal pKa.
- Predict the impact of the local chemical environment on the pKa of the amino acid side group.
- Determine the charge state of an amino acid at indicated pH; including the pH at which the amino acid is a zwitterion.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 2 hours.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Amino Acid URL
  Read the entire article. (40 minutes)
  Britannica - 2022
Module 1: Lesson 2: Peptide Bond Formation and Hydrolysis
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the chemical nature of the peptide bond.
- Calculate the isoelectric point of a peptide.
- Explain the reactions of amino acids and their impact on protein.
- Analyze the importance of the reactions of cysteine-cysteine bonds.
- Analyze the biological activities of peptides.
- Compare the relative sizes of proteins.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Peptides and Proteins URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  Chemistry Libretexts - 2021
Module 1: Lesson 3: Protein Structure
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain how proteins are classified using their physical properties and how these impact protein functions.
- Explain the levels of protein structure, the bonds formed at each level, and the interaction/contribution of each level of organization to the overall protein structure.
- Describe the physicochemical properties of proteins.
- Identify the component and major parts of proteins.
- Describe the methods used to separate and purify proteins.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 2 hours and 15 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Proteins URL
  Read the sections on classification, conformation, physicochemical properties, and levels of structural organization of proteins. (45 min)
  Britannica - 2020
Module 1: Lesson 4: Denaturation
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Understand what protein denaturation is.
- Explain the causes of protein denaturation.
- Describe the process of denaturation.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 55 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Denaturation of Proteins URL
  Read the entire content and watch the videos. (Reading - 10) (Watching - 5)
  Byju's - 2022
- Quiz: Module 1
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 2: Enzymes
Competency covered in this module:
- Enzymes.
- Properties of enzymes.
- Basics of enzyme catalysis.
- Enzymes: Activation Energy and Reaction Equilibrium.
- Classification of enzymes.
- Oxidoreductases.
- Transferases.
- Hydrolases.
- Lyases.
- Isomerases.
- Ligases.
- The Catalytic Activity of Enzymes.
- Mechanisms of Enzymatic Catalysis.
- Coenzymes.
- Regulation of Enzyme Activity.
- KM and Vmax Values.
- The kcat/KM Criterion.
- Biochemical Reactions that include multiple substrates.
- Allosteric Enzymes.
Module 2: Lesson 1: Enzyme Classifications
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the classification of different types of enzymes and understand their physiological role.
- Describe the basic properties of enzymes and their use as catalysts.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 2 hours and 15 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Classes of Enzymes URL
  Read the entire chapter. (45 minutes)
  Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals, Advances in Enzyme Catalysis and Technologies. (Pages 11-30) - 2020
Module 2: Lesson 2: The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the function of enzymes as catalysts making use of energy diagrams for catalyzed and uncatalyzed reactions.
- Describe the principal mechanisms of enzymatic catalysis
- Identify the principal characteristics and functions of coenzymes and their importance.
- Describe how enzymes are regulated covalently and allosterically.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  Cooper GM. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts - 2000
Module 2: Lesson 3: Enzyme Kinetics
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe enzyme kinetics through equations and graphs.
- Explain how the Michaels-Menten model can be used to characterize enzyme kinetics.
- Describe why the kcat/KM criterion is important in enzyme kinetics.
- Describe how the multiple substrate reactions are classified.
- Determine if Allosteric enzymes obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 10 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
2 URLs, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Allosteric Interactions URL
  Read the entire article. (5 minutes)
  LibreTexts; UC Davis - 2022
- CHEM 440 - Enzyme Kinetics URL
  Read the entire page. (15 minutes)
  Gonzaga College, CHEM 440 publications - 2022
- Quiz: Module 2
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 3: Nonezymatic Proteins
Competency covered in this module:
- Structural proteins (collagen, elastin, keratins, actin, tubulin.)
- Motor Proteins (ATPases, Myosin, Kinesins, dyneins.)
- Binding Proteins.
- Cell Adhesion Molecules (Cadherins, Integrins, Selectins.)
- Immunoglobulins.
- Ion Channels (ungated, voltage-gated, ligand-gated.)
- Enzyme-linked Receptors
- G-protein Coupled Receptors
- Electrophoresis (Native PAGE, SDS-PAGE, Isoelectric Focusing)
- Chromatography for protein isolation
- Examining protein structure via X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
- Edman degradation for analyzing small proteins, Bradford Protein assay, bicinchoninic acid assay.
Module 3: Lesson 1: Cellular Function
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the nonenzymatic functions of structural proteins, motor proteins, binding proteins, cell adhesion molecules, and immunoglobulins.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Nonenzymatic Protein Function for the MCAT: Everything you Need to Know URL
  Read the entire article. (30 minutes)
  Shemmassian Academic Consulting - 2020
Module 3: Lesson 2: Biosignaling
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe biosignaling of ion channels, enzyme-linked receptors, and G-protein coupled receptors.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Biochemistry 1: Biosignaling URL
  Read the entire article. (30 minutes)
  New Mexico State University - 2018
Module 3: Lesson 3: Protein Analysis Techniques
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the various protein analysis techniques.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 13 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Protein Analysis Techniques Explained URL
  Read the entire article. (21 minutes)
  ATA Scientific Pty Ltd. - 2019
- Quiz: Module 3
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 4: Carbohydrates
Competency covered in this module:
- Monosaccharides especially D-Fructose, D-Glucose, D-Galactose, and D-Mannose.
- Stereochemistry (enantiomers, diastereomers, epimers of monosaccharides.)
- Hexose conformations (Haworth and Fischer projections of D-Glucose.)
- Mutarotation.
- Oxidation and reduction of monosaccharides (Tollens' reagent, Benedict's reagent.)
- Esterification and phosphorylation of monosaccharides.
- Glycoside formation, glycosidic linkage formation.
- Homoglycans.
- Heteroglycans.
- Glycoconjugates.
- Proteoglycans.
- Glycoproteins.
- Mnemonic for carbohydrate configuration.
- Mutarotation.
- Ketoses.
- Deoxy sugars.
- Amino sugar, branched chain carbohydrates.
- Glycosides.
- Carbohydrate structure determination.
- Oxidation and reduction of carbohydrates (Benedict’s reagent), periodic acid oxidation of carbohydrates.
- Isomerization and retro-aldol retro cleavage reactions of carbohydrates.
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
Module 4: Lesson 1: Classification of Carbohydrates
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Correctly classify carbohydrates according to their properties.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Carbohydrate Chemistry and Classification URL
  Read the entire article. (30 minutes)
  Carbohydrate chemistry and classification - 2013
Module 4: Lesson 2: Cyclic Carbohydrates
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe carbohydrates that have five or more carbon atoms.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 39 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Cyclic Form of Carbohydrates URL
  Watch the video. (13 minutes)
  AK Lectures - 2021
Module 4: Lesson 3: Monosaccharides
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the different reactions of monosaccharides.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 3 hours.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Chapter 22: Carbohydrates URL
  Read pages 5-31. (60 minutes)
  The Hashemite University - 2020
Module 4: Lesson 4: Disaccharides
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Identify the two monosaccharide units in a given disaccharide.
- Determine the type of glycoside links present in a disaccharide structure.
- Draw the structure of a disaccharide, given the structure of the monosaccharide units and the type of glycoside link involved.
- Identify the structural features that determine whether or not a given disaccharide behaves as reducing sugar and undergoes mutarotation.
- Determine the products formed from the hydrolysis of a disaccharide.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 3 hours and 25 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Forum, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Disaccharides URL
  Read the entire article. (35 minutes)
  Chem Libretexts - 2021
- Reflection Activity: Health Applications of Biochemistry (90 minutes) Forum
  General Instructions
  In this learning activity, you will reflect on the health applications of biochemistry. To successfully achieve this, you will need to review all the study materials for Modules 1-4 on the building blocks of biochemistry, enzymes, non-enzymatic proteins, and carbohydrates.
  Step 1: Select and Reflect
  Select one of the introductory biochemistry topics below and reflect on how they are applied in practical/clinical settings to diagnose, treat, or understand pathological and healthy human states.
  Building blocks of biochemistry (amino acids, peptides, protein structure, and denaturation)
  Enzymes (classification, role of enzymes as biological catalysts, and enzyme kinetics)
  Non-enzymatic proteins (cellular functions, biosignaling, and protein analysis techniques)
  Carbohydrates (classification)
  Step 2: Respond
  Using supporting data to back your arguments, prepare a 400-500 word written piece which discusses any one of the following:
  At least five industrial uses of amino acids, two of which must be of pharmaceutical and nutritional value
  Five specific enzyme-catalyzed reactions in the human body, two of which must be digestive and disease-related value
  The application of protein analyses techniques in medicine
  The role of carbohydrates in energy production and the mechanism of carbohydrate-induced disease states, for example, Obesity and Type II Diabetes Mellitus
  Step 3: Share
  To share your work, click on the “Add a new discussion topic” button under this post and paste your work into the “Message” box. Make sure to reference others’ intellectual property when necessary. All references should follow 7th Edition APA formatting. For further instructions, see the resource on the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library: APA citation resource (N.B.: references are excluded from word counts).
  Step 4: Interact
  To complete the activity, you will need to reply to at least two posts made by your peers in a respectful and professional manner. Be sure your post engages your peers' ideas by including a reflection on their comments, sharing ideas on other potential difficulties and parties involved, or asking thought-provoking questions. If peer comments on your posting, please reply. To post a reply, click “Reply” on a particular discussion, write your feedback and then click on “Post to the forum.”
- Quiz: Module 4
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 5: Carbohydrate Metabolism
Competency covered in this module:
- GLUT 2 and GLUT 4.
- Impact of blood glucose levels on GLUT 2 and GLUT 4 activity.
- Key steps (intermediates, reactants, products, enzymes of glycolysis; hexokinase vs glycokinase.)
- Fermentation via lactate dehydrogenase.
- Glycolysis in erythrocytes.
- Steps in Fructose and Galactose metabolism (intermediates, reactants, products, enzymes.)
- Acetyl-CoA.
- Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex.
- The process and important steps.
- Important enzymes
- Oxidative phase.
- Non-oxidative phase.
Module 5: Lesson 1: Glucose Transport
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the mechanism of glucose transport in the body.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Glucose Transporters: Physiological and Pathological Roles URL
  Read from the beginning to Class III Facilitative Transporters. (10 minutes)
  National Library of Medicine - 2016
Module 5: Lesson 2: Glycolysis
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the key steps in glycolysis, fermentation via lactate dehydrogenase, and glycolysis in erythrocytes.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Biochemistry, Glycolysis URL
  Read the entire article. (15 minutes)
Module 5: Lesson 3: Metabolism of Fructose and Galactose
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the key steps in Fructose and Galactose metabolism.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 48 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Fructose and Galactose Breakdown Pathways URL
  Watch the video and read the article. (16 minutes)
  AK Lectures - 2021
Module 5: Lesson 4: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 15 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) URL
  Read the entire article. (5 minutes)
  Abcam Plc.- 2022
Module 5: Lesson 5: Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 15 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis URL
  Read the entire document. (5 minutes)
  Zydus Medical College and Hospital, Dahod - 2018
Module 5: Lesson 6: Gluconeogenesis
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the process and important enzymes in glucogenesis.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Biochemistry, Gluconeogenesis URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  National Library of Medicine - 2022
Module 5: Lesson 7: Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the oxidative and non-oxidative steps in Pentose Phosphate Pathway.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 2 hours and 58 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Forum, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway URL
  Read the entire article. (6 minutes)
  Liberexts - 2022
- Case Scenario: Pathophysiology of Carbohydrate Metabolic Disorders (150 minutes) Forum
  General Instructions
  
  In this learning activity, you will read and analyze the two case scenarios provided and answer the questions related to carbohydrate metabolism.
  
  Case Scenario 1
  
  ABC is a 3-year-old boy who was referred to the hematologist after a pediatrician found him with an enlarged spleen (Splenomegaly), yellowing of the sclera of the eyes (Jaundice), and low blood volume (Anemic). In an interview with his mother, she hinted at a possible history of a blood-related disorders in her family, as revealed by the past medical diagnosis of other family members.
  
  ABC was subjected to a test that measures the different types of hemoglobin in the blood (Hemoglobin Electrophoresis). The result was normal, and the Complete Blood Count (CBC) revealed normocytic anemia. However, bizarre erythrocytes, including spiculated cells, were observed on the peripheral smear.
  
  ABC was diagnosed with pyruvate kinase deficiency.
  
  Case Scenario 2
  
  DEF is a 10-year-old girl with a grossly enlarged abdomen. Her medical history includes frequent sweating, episodes of weakness, and pallor that were eliminated by eating. DEF’s development had been undoubtedly slow. She began to sit at 11 months, walked freely/unassisted at two years, and was doing poorly in school.
  
  Physical examination revealed normal blood pressure, temperature, and a normal pulse rate but a subnormal weight (20 kg). Her liver was enlarged, firm, and descended into the pelvis. The spleen and kidneys were not palpable.
  
  Other physical examination parameters were within normal limits.
  
  However, laboratory investigation reports revealed low blood glucose, low pH, high lactate, triglycerides, ketones, and free fatty acids. Again, the liver biopsy revealed high glycogen content. However, the hepatic glycogen structure was normal.
  
  Very low Glucose-6-Phosphate levels were observed after an enzyme assay was performed on the biopsy tissue.
  
  Step 1: Reflect
  
  Read and reflect on the case scenarios above as they relate to carbohydrate metabolism.
  
  Step 2: Respond
  
  Based on the case scenarios above, prepare a 500-600 word written response that answers the following key questions:
  
  Case Scenario 1:
  
  What is the biochemical basis of ABC’s disorder, and describe it?
  
  Discuss the role of erythrocytes and ATP in the condition
  
  Discuss the biochemical basis of anemia
  
  Case Scenario 2:
  
  What might be the probable diagnosis of DEF’s condition?
  
  Describe the pathophysiology of DEF’s condition
  
  Step 3: Share
  
  To share your work, click on the “Add a new discussion topic” button under this post and paste your work into the “Message” box. Make sure to reference others’ intellectual property when necessary. All references should follow 7th Edition APA formatting. For further instructions, see the resource on the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library: APA citation resource (N.B.: references are excluded from word counts).
  
  Step 4: Interact
  
  To complete the activity, you will need to reply to at least two posts made by your peers in a respectful and professional manner. Be sure your post engages your peers' ideas by including a reflection on their comments, sharing ideas on other potential difficulties and parties involved, or asking thought-provoking questions. If a peer comments on your posting, please reply. To post a reply, click “Reply” on a particular discussion, write your feedback and then click on “Post to forum.”
- Quiz: Module 5
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 6: Lipids
Competency covered in this module:
- Lipid types and structures.
- Terpenes and terpenoids.
- Steroids.
- Prostaglandins.
- Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)
- Storage of lipids.
- Saponification.
Module 6: Lesson 1: Lipid Classes
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the unique characteristics and diverse structures of lipids.
- Compare and contrast triacylglycerides (triglycerides) and phospholipids.
- Describe how phospholipids are used to construct biological membranes.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Lipid types and structures URL
  Read the entire article. (15 minutes)
  Openoregon.pressbooks.pub - N.D
Module 6: Lesson 2: Signaling Lipids
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the different structures of terpenes and terpenoids, steroids, prostaglandins, and Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K).
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Lipids URL
  Read the following sections- terpenes, steroids, prostaglandins, and fat-soluble vitamins. (30 minutes)
  William Reusch - 2013
Module 6: Lesson 3: Lipid Storage
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the storage of lipids in the body and the role of adipocytes.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 21 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Adipose Tissue URL
  Read the entire article. (7 minutes)
  Osmosis - 2022
Module 6: Lesson 4: Saponification
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe saponification, its reactions, mechanisms, effects, and uses.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 10 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Saponification URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  BYJU'S - 2022
- Quiz: Module 6
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 7: Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism
Competency covered in this module:
- Digestion of lipids in the duodenum and small intestine.
- Micelle formation.
- Absorption.
- Mobilization and metabolism of triacylglycerols by the liver (hormone-sensitive lipase, lipoprotein lipase)
- Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins, Chylomicrons, Very-low-density lipoprotein, Intermediate-density lipoprotein, Low-density lipoprotein, High-density lipoprotein, Apolipoproteins.
- Citrate shuttle.
- LCAT enzymes.
- CETP transfer process.
- Fatty acid biosynthesis (Acetyl-CoA Shuttling, Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase, Fatty Acid Synthase.)
- Triglyceride/triacylglycerol synthesis, oxidation (activation and fatty acid entry into mitochondria, beta-oxidation in mitochondria, Propionic Acid Pathway.)
- Ketogenesis.
- Ketolysis.
- Proteolysis.
- Transamination/deamination.
- Glucogenic amino acids.
- Ketogenic amino acids.
- Urea cycle.
Module 7: Lesson 1: Lipid Digestion and Absorption
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe lipid digestion, micelle formation, and absorption.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 42 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Digestion and Absorption of Lipids URL
  Read the entire article. (14 minutes)
  University of Hawaii - N.D
Module 7: Lesson 2: Lipid Mobilization
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the mobilization and metabolism of triacylglycerols by the liver.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Mobilization of Fatty Acids URL
  Read the sections under mobilization of fatty acids, oxidation of fatty acids, and regulation of fatty acids oxidation. (10 minutes)
  Britannica - 2022
Module 7: Lesson 3: Lipid Transport
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Understand the mechanism of lipid transport in the body.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Lipid Transport URL
  Read the entire article. (15 minutes)
  LibreTexts - 2021
Module 7: Lesson 4: Cholesterol Metabolism
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe citrate shuttle, LCAT enzymes, and CETP transfer process in Cholesterol metabolism.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 36 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Cholesterol Metabolism URL
  Read the entire article. (12 minutes)
  CUSABIO - 2022
Module 7: Lesson 5: Fatty Acids and Triglycerols Metabolism
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the metabolism of fatty acids and triglycerols.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Metabolism (Degradation) of Triglycerols and Fatty Acids URL
  Read from pages 1-19. (20 minutes)
  Charles University, Prague - ND
Module 7: Lesson 6: Ketone Bodies
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Metabolism (Degradation) of Triglycerols and Fatty Acids URL
  Read from pages 19-22. (10 minutes)
  Charles University, Prague - N. D
Module 7: Lesson 7: Protein Catabolism
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the concept of breakdown of proteins.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 3 hours and 25 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Forum, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Biochemistry: Protein Catabolism URL
  Read the entire article. (25 minutes)
  National Library of Medicine - 2021
- Case Scenario: Pathophysiology of Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolic Disorders (120 minutes) Forum
  General Instructions
  
  In this learning activity, you will read and analyze the case scenarios below and answer questions that relate to lipid and amino acid metabolism.
  
  Case Scenario 1:
  
  GHI is a 23-year-old lady who presented to the Outpatient Department of a specialist hospital with a medical history of spleen removal secondary to hepatomegaly, joint and bone pains with femoral fractures at different times, and a previous liver biopsy which revealed accumulation of glucosylceramide in wrinkled looking cells.
  
  Case Scenario 2:
  
  JKL is a female child born after a normal pregnancy. Her development after birth did not occur normally, as expected. Upon presentation to a health center at the age of eight, the physician noted she could not feed herself, could not speak like children of her age and could only manage to say a few words, and showed involuntary limb movements. Her cognitive development was not encouraging, and after being subjected to an I.Q. test, her score turned out to be 70. Her skin is light-colored, and she has blue eyes and patches of white hair across her head.
  
  Examination revealed a musty odor in her urine with large amounts of a certain amino acid (X). In addition, an appreciable amount of a compound was isolated from the urine, which, when incubated with NADH and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), produced the following compound:
  
  Step 1 Reflect
  
  Read and reflect on the case scenarios above as they relate to lipid and amino acid metabolism.
  
  Step 2: Respond
  
  Based on the case scenarios above, prepare a 500-600 word written response that answers the following key questions:
  
  Case Scenario 1:
  
  What might be the likely diagnosis of GHI?
  
  Discuss the pathophysiology of GHI’s condition
  
  Case Scenario 2:
  
  What metabolic disorder could be JKL’s condition?
  
  Describe how the condition can be experimentally confirmed
  
  Name the techniques that can be used to identify the unknown amino acid in the urine
  
  Mention the class of reaction involved in the formation of compound II from the amino acid
  
  Step 3: Share
  
  To share your work, click on the “Add a new discussion topic” button under this post and paste your work into the “Message” box. Make sure to reference others’ intellectual property when necessary. All references should follow 7th Edition APA formatting. For further instructions, see the resource on the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library: APA citation resource (N.B.: references are excluded from word counts).
  
  Step 4: Interact
  
  To complete the activity, you will need to reply to at least two posts made by your peers in a respectful and professional manner. Be sure your post engages your peers' ideas by including a reflection on their comments, sharing ideas on other potential difficulties and parties involved, or asking thought-provoking questions. If a peer comments on your posting, please reply. To post a reply, click “Reply” on a particular discussion, write your feedback and then click on “Post to forum.”
- Quiz: Module 7
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 8: DNA
Competency covered in this module:
- Nucleosides and nucleotides and names of nucleosides and nucleotides (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine.)
- The sugar-phosphate backbone, DNA strand polarity, purines and pyrimidines, Watson-Crick model, denaturation, and reannealing.
- Histones.
- Heterochromatin and Euchromatin.
- Telomeres.
- Centromeres.
- Strand separation and origins of replication (replisome, replication origin, replication forks.)
- DNA replication in prokaryotes vs eukaryotes, semi-conservative replication, replication of daughter strands (leading strand, lagging strand, Okazaki fragments, primase, DNA polymerases, DNA ligase.)
- Replicating ends of chromosomes (telomeres).
- Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes (cancer, metastasis, oncogenes, proto-oncogenes, anti-oncogenes.)
- Proofreading and mismatch repair.
- Nucleotide excision repair.
- Base excision repair.
- DNA cloning and restriction enzymes (recombinant vector, restriction endonucleases, sticky ends.)
- DNA libraries and cDNA.
- Comparison of genomic and cDNA (expression) libraries.
- Hybridization (PCR, Gel electrophoresis, and Southern Blotting.)
- DNA sequencing.
- Applications of DNA technology (Gene therapy, Transgenic, and Knockout Mice.)
- Safety and ethics of genetic engineering.
Module 8: Lesson 1: DNA Structure
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe nucleic acids and the role they play in DNA and RNA.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Nucleic Acids URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  OpenStax textbooks - 2021
Module 8: Lesson 2: Organization of Chromosomes in Eukaryotes
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the organization of chromosomes in eukaryotes.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Organization of Eukaryotic Chromosomes URL
  Read the entire article. (30 minutes)
  S. S. College, Jehanabad - 2018
Module 8: Lesson 3: DNA Replication
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- DNA Replication Steps and Process URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  ThoughtCo.- 2019
Module 8: Lesson 4: DNA Repair
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the mechanisms of DNA repair.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Mechanisms of DNA Repair URL
  Read the article and watch the video. (15 minutes)
  News Medical Life Sciences - 2022
Module 8: Lesson 5: Recombinant DNA Technology
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe DNA cloning and restriction enzymes, DNA libraries and cDNA, hybridization, DNA sequencing, applications and DNA technology, and ethical considerations of genetic engineering.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 3 hours and 10 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Forum, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Recombinant DNA URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  Britannica - 2022
- Peer Activity: Applications of DNA Technology (120 minutes) Forum
  General Instructions
  
  In this activity, you will describe the role nucleic acids play in DNA and RNA structures, the organization of chromosomes in eukaryotes, DNA replication, mechanisms of DNA repair, and recombinant DNA technology. To accomplish this, you will review all the study materials for Module 8.
  
  Step 1: Select and Reflect
  
  Select one of the key topics under DNA below and reflect on how they are applied in practical/clinical settings to either diagnose, treat, or understand pathological and healthy human states.
  
  Describe DNA cloning and restriction enzymes
  
  Hybridization
  
  Applications and DNA technology
  
  Ethical considerations of genetic engineering
  
  Step 2: Respond
  
  Using supporting data to back your arguments, prepare a 500-600 word written piece that discusses any one of the following:
  
  The application of genetically-engineered organisms in agriculture and improving the nutritional value of the plant
  
  The application of gene therapy in medicine
  
  Explain the use of recombinant DNA technology in medicine and forensics
  
  Ethical considerations in experimental human genome editing
  
  Step 3: Share
  
  To share your work, click on the “Add a new discussion topic” button under this post and paste your work into the “Message” box. Make sure to reference others’ intellectual property when necessary. All references should follow 7th Edition APA formatting. For further instructions, see the resource on the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library: APA citation resource (N.B.: references are excluded from word counts).
  
  Step 4: Interact
  
  To complete the activity, evaluate and categorize the work from one of your peers based on items A - E of the rubric below. Provide a rationale for the grade you have provided, as well as comments or suggestions for improvement. To post a reply, click “Reply” on a particular discussion, write your feedback and then click on “Post to forum.” You can use the list below as an example:
  
  Item A is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item B is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item C is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item D is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item E is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
- Quiz: Module 8
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 9: RNA
Competency covered in this module:
- Nucleic acids.
- Structure and replication of DNA.
- Erwin Chargaff rules.
- DNA-directed protein biosynthesis.
- Genetic codes.
- DNA sequencing.
- Mechanism of transcription (helicase, topoisomerase, template strand, promoter regions, RNA polymerase II, TATA box.)
- Transcription factors, coding strand.
- Post-transcriptional processing .
- Splicing (introns and extrons), 5' Cap, 3'Poly-A tail.
- Mechanism of translation (Initiation, elongation, termination.)
- Posttranslational processing (chaperones, phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation.)
- Operon structure.
- Jacob-Monod Model.
- Inducible systems (negative control, catabolite activator protein, positive control.)
- Repressible systems (corepressors.)
- Transcription factors (binding domain, DNA response element, activation domain.)
- Gene amplification (enhancers, gene duplication.)
- Regulation of chromatin structure (histone acetylation, DNA methylation.)
Module 9: Lesson 1: Nucleic Acids
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe nucleic acids and the role they play in DNA and RNA.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
2 URLs
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Nucleic Acids URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  OpenStax textbooks - 2021
- Structure and Replication of DNA URL
  Read everything except the exercises. (30 minutes)
  LibreTexts Biology - 2022
Module 9: Lesson 2: Transcription Factors and the Preinitiation Complex (PIC)
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the preinitiation complex in RNA transcription.
- Describe the role of the transcription factors in assembling the preinitiation complex.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Transcription and RNA Processing URL
  Read the section on Transcription Factors and the Preinitiation Complex. (15 minutes)
  Western Oregon University - N.D.
Module 9: Lesson 3: Translation
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 3 hours.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Translation URL
  Read the sections on initiation, elongation, termination, and regulation of translation. (60 minutes)
  Western Oregon University - N.D.
Module 9: Lesson 4: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Understand the main mechanisms used to regulate genes on a molecular level via proteins, gene products, and signaling pathways.
- Compare inducible operons and repressible operons.
- Describe why regulation of operons is important.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 15 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Transcriptional Control and Epigenesis URL
  Read the section on prokaryotic gene regulation. (25 minutes)
  Western Oregon University - N. D
Module 9: Lesson 5: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Define differential gene expression.
- Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin.
- Explain how DNA methylation and histone acetylation affects chromatin structure and the regulation of transcription.
- Define epigenetic inheritance.
- Describe the role of the transcription initiation complex.
- Define control elements and explain how they influence transcription.
- Distinguish between general and specific transcription factors.
- Explain the role of promoters, enhancers, activators, and repressors in transcriptional control.
- Explain how eukaryotic genes can be coordinately expressed.
- Describe the process and significance of alternative RNA splicing.
- Describe the processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes.
- Describe factors that influence the lifespan of mRNA in the cytoplasm.
- Explain how gene expression may be controlled at the translational and posttranslational level.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 3 hours and 25 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Forum, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Eukaryotic Gene Regulation URL
  Read the section under eukaryotic gene regulation. (25 minutes)
  Western Oregon University - N. D
- Peer Activity: Applications of RNA Technology (120 minutes) Forum
  General Instructions
  In this activity, you will describe transcription factors and the preinitiation complex (PIC), the process of translation, prokaryotic gene regulation, and eukaryotic gene regulation. To achieve this, you will review all the study materials for Module 9.
  
  Step 1: Select and Reflect
  
  Read “Translation” from the learning resources under RNA.
  
  Step 2: Respond
  
  Using supporting data to back your arguments, prepare a 500-600 word written piece which discusses the following:
  
  Explain, in detail, the step-by-step process of translating the language of nucleotides into the language of amino acids in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
  
  Step 3: Share
  
  To share your work, click on the “Add a new discussion topic” button under this post and paste your work into the “Message” box. Make sure to reference others’ intellectual property when necessary. All references should follow 7th Edition APA formatting. For further instructions, see the resource on the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library: APA citation resource (N.B.: references are excluded from word counts).
  
  Step 4: Interact
  
  To complete the activity, evaluate and categorize the work from one of your peers based on items A - E of the rubric below. Provide a rationale for the grade you have provided, as well as comments or suggestions for improvement. To post a reply, click “Reply” on a particular discussion, write your feedback and then click on “Post to forum.” You can use the list below as an example:
  
  Item A is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item B is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item C is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item D is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
  Item E is .…. because…. My suggestions for improvement are….
- Quiz: Module 9
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 10: Biological Membranes
Competency covered in this module:
- Membrane structure and function.
- Membrane dynamics (phospholipids, lipid rafts, flippases.)
- Lipids (fatty acids and triacylglycerols.)
- Phospholipids.
- Sphingolipids.
- Cholesterol and Steroids.
- Waxes.
- Proteins (transmembrane, embedded, integral, peripheral.)
- Carbohydrates.
- Membrane receptors.
- Concentration gradients.
- Passive transport (simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.)
- Active transport.
- Endocytosis and exocytosis.
- Membrane potential (Sodium-Potassium Pump, Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation.)
Module 10: Lesson 1: Fluid Mosaic Model
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the structure and functions of membranes.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Fluid Mosaic Model URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  LibreTexts: Biology - 2022
Module 10: Lesson 2: Membrane Components
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the components of a membrane and membrane fluidity
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 54 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Components and Structure URL
  Read the entire article except the "Fluid Mosaic Model" section (18 minutes)
  LibreTexts: Biology - 2022
Module 10: Lesson 3: Membrane Transport
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe membrane transport in relation to concentration gradient and active/passive transport.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Membrane Transport URL
  Read the entire article. (20 minutes)
  LibreTexts: Biology - 2022
Module 10: Lesson 4: Specialized Membranes
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain membrane potential.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 1 hour and 10 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Membrane Potential URL
  Read the entire article and watch the embedded YouTube video. (20 minutes)
  LibreTexts: Biology - 2022
- Quiz: Module 10
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 11: Aerobic Respiration
Competency covered in this module:
- Methods of forming Acetyl-CoA (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, fatty acid oxidation, amino acid catabolism, ketones, alcohol consumption.)
- Purpose of the Citric Acid Cycle: key steps, intermediates, reactants, products, enzymes in the Citric Acid Cycle, and regulation of the cycle.
- Structure of Mitochondria.
- Electron flow and complexes (NADH-CoQ Oxidoreductase, Succinate-CoQ Oxidoreductase, CoQH2-Cytochrome C Oxidoreductase, Cytochrome C Oxidase.)
- The Proton-Motive Force.
- NADH shuttles (Glycerol-3-Phosphate Shuttle and Malate-Aspartate Shuttle.)
- Chemiosmotic coupling.
- Respiratory control.
Module 11: Lesson 1: Acetyl CoA
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the different methods of Acetyl-CoA formation.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 15 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Acetyl CoA Production URL
  Read the entire article. (5 minutes)
  Jack Westin - N.D
Module 11: Lesson 2: Citric Acid Cycle
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the purpose and key steps in Citric Acid Cycle.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 24 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- The Citric Acid Cycle URL
  Read the entire article. (8 minutes)
  Merck KGaA - 2022
Module 11: Lesson 3: Electron Transport Chain
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the electron transport chain in aerobic respiration
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 39 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Electron Transport Chain URL
  Read the entire article. (13 minutes)
  Lumen Learning - N. D
Module 11: Lesson 4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe oxidative phosphorylation.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 52 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Oxidative Phosphorylation URL
  Read the entire article. (14 minutes)
  CUSABIO Technology LLC - 2022
- Quiz: Module 11
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Module 12: Bioenergetics
Competency covered in this module:
- Biological systems as closed systems.
- Free energy.
- Enthalpy.
- Entropy.
- Physiological conditions.
- ATP as an energy carrier.
- Hydrolysis and coupling.
- Phosphoryl group transfers.
- Electron carriers (NADH, NADPH, FADH2).
- Flavoproteins.
- Postprandial (absorptive) state (anabolism, catabolism.)
- Postabsorptive (fasting) state (counterregulatory hormones.)
- Prolonged fasting (starvation.)
- Insulin and glucagon.
- Glucocorticoids.
- Catecholamines.
- Hyroid hormones.
- Liver.
- Adipose tissue.
- Resting muscle.
- Active muscle.
- Cardiac muscle.
- Brain.
- Analysis of metabolism (respirometry, Basal Metabolic Rate.)
- Regulation of body mass.
Module 12: Lesson 1: Thermodynamics and Bioenergetics
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain the concept of thermodynamics and bioenergetics.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 45 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Bioenergetics/Thermodynamics URL
  Read the entire article. (15 minutes)
  Jack Westin - N.D.
Module 12: Lesson 2: Adenosine Triphosphate
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the role of ATP as an energy carrier, its hydrolysis, and coupling.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Adenosine Triphosphate URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  Georgia State University - N.D.
Module 12: Lesson 3: Biological Oxidation and Reduction
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain electronic careers and flavoproteins.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Biological Oxidation-Reduction (BC/GC) URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  Jack Westin - N.D.
Module 12: Lesson 4: Metabolic States
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Explain postprandial, postabsorptive, and prolonged fasting.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Metabolic States of the Body URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  Lumen Learning - N.D.
Module 12: Lesson 5: Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe the roles of hormones in metabolism.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Hormonal Regulation of Fuel Metabolism URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  Jack Westin - N.D.
Module 12: Lesson 6: Tissue-Specific Metabolism
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe metabolism in the liver, adipose tissue, resting muscle, active muscle, cardiac muscle, and brain.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 30 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Tissue-Specific Metabolism URL
  Read the entire article. (10 minutes)
  Jack Westin - N.D.
Module 12: Lesson 7: Integrative Metabolism
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
- Describe cellular respiration, basal metabolic rate, and regulation of body mass.
Approximate time required for the readings for this lesson (at 144 words/minute): 6 hours and 4 minutes.

Click here to start this lesson
1 URL, 1 Forum, 1 Quiz
- Required Learning Resources and Activities
- Metabolism, and Energy Balance URL
  Read the entire article. (68 minutes)
  University of Saskachewan - 2022
- Reflection: Energy Production by the Human Body (150 minutes) Forum
  General Instructions
  
  In this activity, you will reflect on all you have read about thermodynamics and bioenergetics, ATP, biological oxidation and reduction, metabolic states, hormonal regulation and metabolism, tissue-specific metabolism, and integrative metabolism. To accomplish this, you will review all the study materials for Module 12.
  
  Step 1: Select and Reflect
  
  Select one of the topics of biochemistry below and reflect on their practical effects on the human body.
  
  Metabolic States
  
  Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
  
  Tissue-Specific Metabolism
  
  Integrative Metabolism
  
  Step 2: Respond
  
  Using supporting data to back your arguments, prepare a 400-500 word written piece which discusses any one of the following:
  
  Explain how the body processes glucose when the body is starved of fuel
  
  Describe the role of hormones in metabolism
  
  Describe the metabolic profile of skeletal muscle
  
  Describe the mechanism of appetite control in the human body
  
  Step 3: Share
  
  To share your work, click on the “Add a new discussion topic” button under this post and paste your work into the “Message” box. Make sure to reference others’ intellectual property when necessary. All references should follow 7th Edition APA formatting. For further instructions, see the resource on the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library: APA citation resource (N.B.: references are excluded from word counts).
  
  Step 4: Interact
  
  To complete the activity, you will need to reply to at least two posts made by your peers in a respectful and professional manner. Be sure your post engages your peers' ideas by including a reflection on their comments, sharing ideas on other potential difficulties and parties involved, or asking thought-provoking questions. If peer comments on your posting, please reply. To post a reply, click “Reply” on a particular discussion, write your feedback and then click on “Post to the forum.”
- Quiz: Module 12
  To access the quiz, click on the name of the quiz provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to view the case studies and respond to the questions.
Final Exam

Click here to start Final Examination
- Final Exam Quiz
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  All of:
  The activity Course Registration is marked complete
  The activity Pre-Test is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 1 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 2 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 3 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 4 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 5 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 6 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 7 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 8 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 9 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 10 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 11 is marked complete
  The activity Quiz: Module 12 is marked complete
  All of:
  The activity Reflection Activity: Health Applications of Biochemistry (90 minutes) is marked complete
  The activity Case Scenario: Pathophysiology of Carbohydrate Metabolic Disorders (150 minutes) is marked complete
  The activity Case Scenario: Pathophysiology of Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolic Disorders (120 minutes) is marked complete
  The activity Peer Activity: Applications of DNA Technology (120 minutes) is marked complete
  The activity Peer Activity: Applications of RNA Technology (120 minutes) is marked complete
  The activity Reflection: Energy Production by the Human Body (150 minutes) is marked complete
  
  To take the final exam, you must complete all quizzes and complete all the required activities. The final exam consists of 40 questions, and you will have 40 minutes to complete it. When the time is over, you will have two minutes to submit your attempt before it expires, and your progress is discarded. You will not be able to answer additional questions in the grace period.
  To access the exam, click on the name of the exam provided above. On the following screen, click the attempt quiz button to respond to the questions.
Course and Self Evaluation & Certificate

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- Course Evaluation Questionnaire
  Restricted Not available unless: The activity Final Exam is marked complete
- Self Evaluation Questionnaire
  Restricted Not available unless: The activity Final Exam is marked complete
Learning activities

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- Activities. Page

Competency covered in this module:

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Competency covered in this module:

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Competency covered in this module:

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Competency covered in this module:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Competency covered in this module:

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Competency covered in this module:

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Competency covered in this module:

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities

Student Learning Outcomes:

Required Learning Resources and Activities